Alexander Hamilton

Alexander Hamilton

Alexander Hamilton was one of the most influential of the United States' founding fathers. As the first secretary of the treasury he placed the new nation on a firm financial footing, and although his advocacy of strong national government brought him into bitter conflict with Thomas Jefferson and others, his political philosophy was ultimately to prevail in governmental development. Hamilton's own career was terminated prematurely when he was killed in a duel with Aaron Burr in 1804.

~ Early Life ~

Hamilton was born on the West Indian island of Nevis, probably in 1755. Since he was the illegitimate son of Rachel Fawcett Lavien and James Hamilton, both of West Indian trading families, his exact birth date and the circumstances of his early life are difficult to determine. Modern research has established, however, that he was probably not born in 1757, as he and his children supposed; that he spent his youth mostly on the island of Saint Croix apprenticed as a clerk; and that in 1772 he was sent to New York City by his guardian, the merchant Nicholas Cruger.

Hamilton was obviously precocious, and his guardian sought to enroll him in the College of New Jersey at Princeton. When refused permission there to accelerate his program of studies, he enrolled instead at King's College (now Columbia University), New York City, in 1773 or 1774. In 1774-75, when he was not yet 20, he entered the growing dispute between the American colonies and the British government by writing many fervent tracts filled with doctrines of rebellion and natural rights derived from the philosopher John Locke.

Hamilton's bent, however, was toward action, so he enlisted in the militia and fought in the battles around New York City in 1775 and 1776. His zeal and organizing ability brought him to George Washington's attention and led to a commission, in March 1777, as lieutenant colonel in the Continental Army and aide-de-camp to its commander. He served with Washington for four years. Though admired as a superb staff officer, Hamilton longed for a field command, which he achieved in time to lead a regiment of New York troops at the Battle of Yorktown in October 1781.

Hamilton's personal life and social position in the new nation took a decisive turn in December 1780, when he married Elizabeth Schuyler, daughter of the wealthy and influential General Philip Schuyler. This connection placed Hamilton in the center of New York society. In 1782, shortly after leaving the army, he was admitted to legal practice in New York and became assistant to Robert Morris (1734-1806), who was then superintendent of finance. Well before his 30th birthday, then, Hamilton had had a distinguished military career, knew intimately most of the leaders of the American Revolution, had achieved high social standing, and was recognized as one of the leading lawyers in the country.

~ The Constitution and Federalism ~

Elected a member of the Continental Congress in 1782, Hamilton at once became a leading proponent of a stronger national government than that provided for by the Articles of Confederation. As aide to Washington he had observed the debilitating effect of "an uncontrollable sovereignty in each state" and called repeatedly for a strengthened Congress and more efficient executive departments. As a New York delegate to the Constitutional Convention of 1787, he advocated a national government that would have virtually abolished the states and even called for a president-for-life to provide energetic leadership. He left the convention at the end of June, but he approved the Constitution subsequently drafted by his colleagues as preferable to the Articles, though it was not as strong as he wished it to be.

With John Jay and James Madison, Hamilton wrote a series of papers (published in book form as The Federalist, 1788) urging the people of New York to ratify the new constitution. His brilliant essays on the need for a stronger union, the utility of a national taxing power, and the importance of the executive and judicial branches of the federal government became classic statements of his political philosophy of strong leadership in the public interest. At the New York ratifying convention of June-July 1788, Hamilton and his allies defeated the previously dominant antifederal forces in the state.

Hamilton was the obvious choice to be the first secretary of the treasury under the new constitution. Holding this office from Sept. 11, 1789, to Jan. 31, 1795, he proved himself a brilliant administrator both in organizing the Treasury Department and in assisting generally to set guidelines for and staff all the departments of government. Most notably, however, he sent reports to Congress on the public credit and on the national bank. Hamilton argued that if the nation was to grow and prosper, its credit would have to be sound to encourage both foreign and domestic investment.

Alexander Hamilton, c. 1792
John Trumbull (1756 - 1843) oil on canvas - National Gallery of Art

~ Secretary of the Treasury ~

He proposed, therefore, to pay the nation's debts in full and also to assume the unpaid debts of the various states. He urged this candidly as a means of both diminishing the fiscal importance of the states and cementing the loyalty of wealthy commercial interests to the federal government. With the nation's economy thus buttressed and biased toward commerce, Hamilton proposed that a national bank be established to help the federal government manage the nation's trade and finance. These proposals were accepted by Congress, and the Bank of the United States was chartered in 1791. His recommendations for a broad range of tariffs and bounties to stimulate the growth of manufacturing were not adopted at this time, however.

Hamilton's plans were so comprehensive and so brilliantly useful to commercial expansion that he aroused the opposition of Madison, Jefferson, and others who believed that such a strong government, informally allied as it was with the worldwide trading dominance of Great Britain, would subordinate agriculture and subvert the republican ideals of the American Revolution. Scorning the Jeffersonians as timid and backward-looking, Hamilton, with Washington's continuing support, organized a congressional majority for his policies.

He then took the lead in urging rapprochement with Great Britain, which culminated in Jay's Treaty (1794), and in firmly suppressing the so-called Whiskey Rebellion (1794), which was provoked by his excise taxes. By the time he retired from the Treasury Department in 1795, he had established the administrative and policy foundations of the new government, articulated a philosophy of "loose construction" of the Constitution, and founded, informally, the conservative Federalist Party as the instrument of his intentions.

~ Later Years ~

On leaving the government Hamilton resumed a busy and lucrative law practice. He continued to have a strong influence in the public councils, however. He supported a defiant posture toward France during the XYZ Affair (1798), and as inspector general of the army (1798-1800) he took charge of organizing the nation's defenses. Bitterly disappointed in President John Adam's erratic leadership, Hamilton openly opposed Adams's reelection in 1800. When it appeared, however, that Aaron Burr might win the presidency over Jefferson, Hamilton unhesitatingly threw his support to Jefferson, whose policies he scorned, rather than to Burr, whom he regarded as a man without principles.

This and other opposition by Hamilton so frustrated and angered Burr that he challenged Hamilton to a duel. The two men fought at Weehawken, N.J., on July 11, 1804. Hamilton apparently fired into the air, but Burr took direct aim. Hamilton fell mortally wounded and died the next day in New York. He was buried in Trinity churchyard, New York City. He left his wife and seven children heavily in debt, but friends soon paid off the debts. Hamilton was mourned by his countrymen as one who had devoted his life to the nation's growth in freedom and prosperity.

(See Bibliography Below)

| Back to Timeline | or click on your browser's "back to previous page" button

Author: Ralph Ketcham
Picture Credit (top): Yale University Art Gallery, Trumbull Collection.
Bibliography: Cooke, Jacob, Alexander Hamilton (1982) and, as ed., Alexander Hamilton (1967); Flexner, James, The Young Hamilton (1978); McDonald, Forrestt, Alexander Hamilton: A Biography (1979; repr. 1982); Mitchell, Broadus, Alexander Hamilton, 2 vols. (1957-62, repr. 1977); O'Brien, Steve, Alexander Hamilton (1989); Rossiter, Clinton, Alexander Hamilton and the Constitution (1964); Stourzh, Gerald, Alexander Hamilton and the Idea of Republican Government (1970); Syrett, Harold, et al., eds., The Papers of Alexander Hamilton, 27 vols. (1961-81).